India's Courts and Artificial Intelligence: A Future Outlook
Keywords:
artificial intelligence, machine learning, judiciary, legal justice system, India
Abstract
In recent years, the legal system has used artificial intelligence technology extensively. Artificial intelligence for judicial purposes is more efficient, knowledgeable, and impartial than human judges. It has its limitations, largely based on big data, algorithms, and computing power rather than organic intelligence. Judiciary artificial intelligence cannot completely replace human judges because of differences in conceptual framework, application scenario, and ability and potential. Unambiguously stating that judicial artificial intelligence is never a replacement for human judges is crucial. The study aims to investigate the legal issues and the various ways that AI impacts the legal system. The research methodology is qualitative, inductive and descriptive.
Povzetek
V zadnjih letih pravni sistem pogosto uporablja tehnologijo umetne inteligence. Umetna inteligenca je v sodne namene učinkovitejša, bolj kompetentna in nepristranska od človeških sodnikov. Ima svoje omejitve, saj večinoma temelji na velikih količinah podatkov, algoritmih in računalniški moči, ne pa na organski inteligenci. Umetna inteligenca v pravosodju ne more popolnoma nadomestiti človeških sodnikov zaradi razlik v konceptualnem okviru, scenariju uporabe ter sposobnosti in potenciala. Nedvoumna izjava, da sodniška umetna inteligenca nikoli ne bo nadomestila človeških sodnikov, je ključnega pomena. Namen študije je raziskati pravna vprašanja in različne načine, kako umetna inteligenca vpliva na pravni sistem. Metodologija raziskave je kvalitativna, induktivna in deskriptivna.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Bang Bit Technologies. (2019) Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (AI): A Deep Dive into Machine Learning & Deep Learning, available at: https://medium.com/@BangBitTech/introduction-toartificial- intelligence-ai-a-deep-dive into-machinelearning-deep-learning-4763e6985344.
Bhupatiraju, S., Chen, D. L., Joshi, S. (2020) The Promise of Machine Learning for the Courts of India. National Law School of India Review, 33(2).
Britt, P. (2018) How AI-assisted surgery is improving surgical outcomes. Micromo. Robot Business Review.
Brynjolfsson, E., Mcafee, A. (2017). Artificial intelligence, for real. Harvard business review, 1, p. 1-31.
Canadian Association of Radiologists (CAR) Artificial Intelligence Working Group. (2019) Canadian Association of Radiologists white paper on ethical and legal issues related to artificial intelligence in radiology. Canadian Association of Radiologists' Journal, 70(2), p. 107-118.
Cath, C. (2018) Governing artificial intelligence: ethical, legal and technical opportunities and challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. The Royal Society, 376(2133), 20180080.
Cath, C., Wachter, S., Mittelstadt, B., Taddeo, M., Floridi, L. (2018) Artificial intelligence and the ‘good society’: the US, EU, and UK approach. Science and engineering ethics, 24(2), p. 505-528.
Chandra, G., Gupta, R., Agarwal, N. (2020) Role of artificial intelligence in transforming the justice delivery system in covid-19 pandemic. International Journal on Emerging Technologies, 11(3), p. 344-350.
Dhyani, S., Thakur, G. S., Sahu, Y. (2019) Assorted Sentiment Analysis Model for Natural Crisis Response and Recovery using Big Data driven Technology. International Journal on Emerging Technologies, 10(4), p. 345–353.
Drake, A., Keller, P., Pietropaoli, I., Puri, A., Maniatis, S., Tomlinson, J., Blair, S. W. (2021) Legal contestation of artificial intelligence-related decision-making in the United Kingdom: reflections for policy. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, p. 1-35.
Drishti IAS. (2022), Artificial Intelligence in Judiciary, available at: https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/artificial-intelligence-in-judiciary.
Glover, E. (2022) Strong AI vs Weak AI: What's the Difference, available at: https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/strong-ai-weak-ai.
Hall, W., Pesenti, J. (2017) Growing the artificial intelligence industry in the UK, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/652097/Growing_the_artificial_intelligence_industry_in_the_UK.pdf.
Ho, C. W. L., Soon, D., Caals, K., Kapur, J. (2019) Governance of automated image analysis and artificial intelligence analytics in healthcare. Clinical radiology, 74(5), p. 329-337.
Hussain Z. (2022) Explained: Can Artificial Intelligence Boost The Pace Of India's Judicial System?, available at: https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/news/artificial-intelligence-and-indias-judicial-system-565113.html.
Jain, P. (2018) Artificial Intelligence for sustainable and effective justice delivery in India. OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 11(06), p. 63-70.
Khillar, S. (2020). Difference Between Strong and Weak AI. Difference Between Similar Terms and Objects, available at: http://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-strong-and-weak-ai/.
Kumar, R., Sonowal, M. (2021) Artificial Intelligence Legal Issues and Judiciary Views, 4(4), IJLMH , DOI: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.111427, p. 819.
Marchant, G. E. (2017) Artificial intelligence and the future of legal practice. ABA SciTech Law, 14(1).
Marciano, J. (2018) Who Wins in the showdown between AI & lawyers? Retrieved Dec 14, 2019, from Topbots: https://www.topbots.com/ai-vs-human-lawyersjonathan- marciano.
Mohit Gupta. (2023) ML|What is Machine Learning?, available at: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ml-machine-learning/.
Muller, C. (2020) The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law. Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
Next IAS. (2022) Artificial Intelligence and Judiciary, available at: https://www.nextias.com/current-affairs/07-03-2022/artificial-intelligence-and-judiciary
Nishith Desai Associates. (2018) The Future is here: Artificial Intelligence and Robotics. Retrieved from Nishith Desai: www.nishithdesai.com.
Norvig, P. R., Intelligence, S. A. (2002) A modern approach. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Rani, M., Nayak, R., & Vyas, OP (2015). An ontology-based adaptive personalized e-learning system, assisted by software agents on cloud storage. Knowledge-Based Systems, 90, p. 33-48.
Prison Statistics India. (2019) Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/sites/default/files/PSI-2019-27-08-2020.pdf.
Rao, A., Gore, A. (2022) Indian Courts of Law can Benefit Immensely by Adopting Artificial Intelligence Methods for a Speedy and Accurate Justice, SocArXiv, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/axjyz.
Raso, F. A., Hilligoss, H., Krishnamurthy, V., Bavitz, C., Kim, L. (2018) Artificial intelligence & human rights: Opportunities & risks. Berkman Klein Center Research Publication, No. 2018-6.
Russell, S. J. (2010) Artificial intelligence a modern approach. Pearson Education, Inc.
Swansburg, C. (2017) Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Law: The Implications of Lawyers' Professional Responsibilities for Practice Innovation. Can. Bus. LJ, 60, p. 385.
Walker-Osborn, C., Chan, C. (2017). Artificial intelligence and the law. ITNOW, 59(1), p. 36-37.
Wang, W., Siau, K. (2018). Artificial intelligence: A study on governance, policies, and regulations. MWAIS 2018 proceedings, 40.
Morgan, F. E., Boudreaux, B., Lohn, A. J., Ashby, M., Curriden, C., Klima, K., Grossman, D. (2020) Military applications of artificial intelligence: ethical concerns in an uncertain world. Santa Monica, CA:EAND Corporation.
Faggella, D. (2017) How e-commerce giants are using AI and marketing (Part 1), available at: https://martech.org/ecommerce-giants-using-ai-marketing-part-1/.
Lynch, M. (2018) 7 Roles For Artificial Intelligence In Education, available at: https://www.thetechedvocate.org/7-roles-for-artificial-intelligence-in-education/.
Luckin, R., Holmes, W., Griffiths, M., Forcier, L. B. (2016) Intelligence unleashed: An argument for AI in education.
Kriebitz, A., Lütge, C. (2020) Artificial intelligence and human rights: a business ethical assessment. Business and Human Rights Journal, 5(1), p. 84-104.
Risse, M. (2019) Human rights and artificial intelligence: an urgently needed agenda. Human Rights Quarterly, 41(1), p. 1-16.
Chatterjee, S., NS, S. (2022) Artificial intelligence and human rights: a comprehensive study from Indian legal and policy perspective. International Journal of Law and Management, 64(1), p. 110-134.
Gosine, M. (2011) Toward a sociology of human rights. Studies in Communications, 6, p. 3-24.
Mlot, S. (2018) AI Beats Human Lawyers At Their Own Game.
Marr, B. (2018) How AI and machine learning are transforming law firms and the legal sector, available at: https://www. forbes. com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/05/23/how-ai-and-machine-learningare-transforming-law-firms-and-the-legal-sector.
Canadian Association of Radiologists (CAR) Artificial Intelligence Working Group. (2019) Canadian Association of Radiologists white paper on ethical and legal issues related to artificial intelligence in radiology. Canadian Association of Radiologists' Journal, 70(2), p. 107-118.
De Sousa, W. G., Fidelis, R. A., de Souza Bermejo, P. H., da Silva Gonçalo, A. G., de Souza Melo, B. (2022) Artificial intelligence and speedy trial in the judiciary: Myth, reality or need? A case study in the Brazilian Supreme Court (STF). Government Information Quarterly, 39(1), 101660.
Xu, Z. (2022) Human judges in the era of artificial intelligence: challenges and opportunities. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 36(1), 2013652.
Volokh, E. (2019) Chief Justice Robots. Duke Law Journal, 68(6), p. 1134–92.
Tomsett, R., Preece, A., Braines, D., Cerutti, F., Chakraborty, S., Srivastava, M., Kaplan, L. (2020) Rapid trust calibration through interpretable and uncertainty-aware AI. Patterns, 1(4), Article 100049, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. patter.2020.100049.
Rodrigues, R. (2020) Legal and human rights issues of AI: Gaps, challenges and vulnerabilities. Journal of Responsible Technology, 4, Article 100005, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2020.100005.
Kazim, E., Koshiyama, A. S. (2021) A high-level overview of AI ethics. Patterns, 2(9), Article 100314, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2021.100314.
Xiao, C., Hu, X., Liu, Z., Tu, C., Sun, M. (2021) Lawformer: A pre-trained language model for Chinese legal long documents. AI Open, 2, p. 79–84, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aiopen.2021.06.003.
Janssen, M., Kuk, G. (2016) The challenges and limits of big data algorithms in technocratic governance. Government Information Quarterly, 33(3), p. 371–377. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2016.08.011.
Alarie, B., Niblett, A., Yoon, A. H. (2018) How artificial intelligence will affect the practice of law. University of Toronto Law Journal, 68, p. 106–124. https://doi.org/10.3138/utlj.2017-0052.
Weber, R. (1999) Intelligent jurisprudence research: A new concept. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, p. 164–172, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1868305.
Bielen, S., Peeters, L., Marneffe, W., Vereeck, L. (2017). Accepted manuscript equilibrium across European judiciaries backlogs and litigation rates. International Review of Law & Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2017.09.002.
Whalen-bridge, H. (2019) Court backlogs: Balancing efficiency and justice in Singapore. International Journal of the Legal Profession, 5958, p. 159–177, https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09695958.2018.1490298.
Baˇci´c, B. (2016) Predicting golf ball trajectories from swing plane: An artificial neural networks approach. Expert Systems with Applications, 65, p. 423–438, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eswa.2016.07.014.
Mikalef, P., Lemmer, K., Schaefer, C., Ylinen, M., Fjørtoft, S. O., Torvatn, H. Y., Niehaves, B. (2021) Enabling AI capabilities in government agencies: A study of determinants for European municipalities. Government Information Quarterly, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101596.
Xiao, C., Hu, X., Liu, Z., Tu, C., Sun, M. (2021) Lawformer: A pre-trained language model for Chinese legal long documents. AI Open, 2, p. 79–84, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aiopen.2021.06.003.
Liddy, E. D. (2001) Natural language processing. In: Encyclopedia of library and Information science, 2nd ed., Marcel Decker, Inc.
Omoteso, K. (2012) The application of artificial intelligence in auditing: Looking back to the future. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), p. 8490–8495, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eswa.2012.01.098.
Katsh, E. (1995) Law in a digital world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zheng, X. (2020) Application and regulation of artificial intelligence technology in judicial judgment. Chinese and Foreign Law, 32(3), p. 675–96.
Yang, L. P. (2017). Practice and think about the construction of smart courts. People’s Court News (China), published on October 25.
Zhang, S. Q. (2020) The application of artificial intelligence in trials. Journal of Shanghai Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 49(1), p. 102–10.
Ma, C. S. (2020) Reshaping effect of judicial Artificial intelligence and its limits. Legal Research, 42(4), p. 23–40.
Gao, X. Q. (2019) Chinese justice in the era of artificial intelligence. Journal of Zhejiang University (Humanities and Social Sciences), 49(4), p. 229–40.
Zhou, S. J., and Q. Wu. (2019) The possibility and limit of artificial intelligence judicial decision making. Journal of East China University of Political Science and Law, 22(1), p. 53–66.
Li, X. N. (2020) Trustworthy artificial intelligence judicature: Significance, challenges and governance responses. Law Forum, 35(4), p. 116–26.
Hastie, R. (2006) The inner world of jurors-Psychoanalysis of the jury’s adjudication process. Beijing: Peking University Press.
Shen, X. J. (2020) On the role of judges in reducing the crux of the same case with different judgments. Jiangsu Social Sciences, 4, p. 112–20.
Chen, M., and H. Xiao (2017) The Provincial Higher People’s Court held a symposium on the review of standardized sentencing intelligent auxiliary systems. Hainan Legal Times.
Jenkins, J. (2008) What can information technology do for law? Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 21(2), p. 589–607.
Alarie, B., Yoon, A. H. (2017) How artificial intelligence will affect the practice of law. In: Artificial Intelligence, Technology and the Future of Law, p. 1–15.
Barrat, J. (2015) Our final invention: Artificial intelligence and the end of the human era. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.
Zuo, W. M. (2018) Some thoughts on the application prospects of legal artificial intelligence in China. Tsinghua Law Science, 12(2), p. 108–24.
Wang, L. S. (2019) Risk and ethical regulation of judicial big data and application of Artificial intelligence technology. Research of Law and Business, 36(2), p. 101–12.
Upadhyay, N. K., Romashkin, S. (2023) Using Artificial Intelligence to Address Criminal Justice Needs, Problems, and Perspectives. In: Legal Analytics, Chapman and Hall/CRC, p. 21-34.
Zhu, F. Y., Y. D. Liu, F. Gao., Wang, K. (2019) Research on the construction of artificial intelligence judicial database based on graph fusion. Journal of Yangzhou University (Humanities and Social Sciences Edition), 23(6), p. 89–96.
Surden, H. (2019) Artificial intelligence and law: An overview. Georgia State University Law Review, 35, p. 19–22.
Alshahrani, A., Dennehy, D., M¨antym¨aki, M. (2021) An attention-based view of AI assimilation in public sector organizations: The case of Saudi Arabia. Government Information Quarterly, 39(4), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101617.
Rosenthal, J. S., Yoon, A. H. (2011) Detecting multiple authorship of United States Supreme Court legal decisions using function words. The Annals of Applied Statistics, 5(1), p. 283–308, https://doi.org/10.1214/10-AOAS378.
Mayson, S. (2019) Bias in, Bias Out. Yale Law Journal, 128(8), p. 2218–23.
Pan, L. Y. (2017) The value and orientation of artificial intelligence intervention in the judicial field. Exploration and Contention, 10, p. 101–06. https://t.cnki.net/kcms/detail?v= 3uoqIhG8C44YLTlOAiTRKibYlV5Vjs7iAEhECQAQ9aTiC5BjCgn0RgMMPPJdcytd–LzJi- a06N5Q516PTHmaFOBo49hG9rP&uniplatform=NZKP.
Calo., R., Froomkin A. M., Kerr, I. (2016) Robot law. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Zeleznikow, J. (2017) Can artificial intelligence and online dispute resolution enhance efficiency and effectiveness in courts. International Journal for Court Administration, 8(2), p. 30-45, https://doi.org/10.18352/ijca.223.
Sulleyman, A. (2017) Durham Police to Use AI to Predict Future Crimes of Suspects, despite Racial Bias Concerns. The Independent, available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/durham-police-ai-predict-crimes-artificial-intelligence-future-suspects-racial-bias-minority-report-a7732641.html.
Gabriel, H. (2010) The Criminal Liability of Artificial Intelligence Entities - from Science Fiction to Legal Social Control. Akron Intellectual Property Journal, 4(2), available at: https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/akronintellectualproperty/vol4/iss2/1?utm_source=ideaexchange.uakron.edu%2Fakronintellectualproperty%2Fvol4%2Fiss2%2F1&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages.
Matusevich (1977). 137 CLR 633; Demerian [1989] VR 97.
Gasser, U. and Almeida, V. A. (2017) A Layered Model for AI Governance. IEEE Internet Computing, 21(6), p. 58-62.
Zeichner, D. (2017) Data will change the world, and we must get its governance right. The Guardian, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/dec/15/data-will-change-the-world-and-we-must-get-itsgovernance-right.
Bhupatiraju, S., Chen, D. L., Joshi, S. (2020) The Promise of Machine Learning for the Courts of India. National Law School of India Review, 33(2).
Britt, P. (2018) How AI-assisted surgery is improving surgical outcomes. Micromo. Robot Business Review.
Brynjolfsson, E., Mcafee, A. (2017). Artificial intelligence, for real. Harvard business review, 1, p. 1-31.
Canadian Association of Radiologists (CAR) Artificial Intelligence Working Group. (2019) Canadian Association of Radiologists white paper on ethical and legal issues related to artificial intelligence in radiology. Canadian Association of Radiologists' Journal, 70(2), p. 107-118.
Cath, C. (2018) Governing artificial intelligence: ethical, legal and technical opportunities and challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. The Royal Society, 376(2133), 20180080.
Cath, C., Wachter, S., Mittelstadt, B., Taddeo, M., Floridi, L. (2018) Artificial intelligence and the ‘good society’: the US, EU, and UK approach. Science and engineering ethics, 24(2), p. 505-528.
Chandra, G., Gupta, R., Agarwal, N. (2020) Role of artificial intelligence in transforming the justice delivery system in covid-19 pandemic. International Journal on Emerging Technologies, 11(3), p. 344-350.
Dhyani, S., Thakur, G. S., Sahu, Y. (2019) Assorted Sentiment Analysis Model for Natural Crisis Response and Recovery using Big Data driven Technology. International Journal on Emerging Technologies, 10(4), p. 345–353.
Drake, A., Keller, P., Pietropaoli, I., Puri, A., Maniatis, S., Tomlinson, J., Blair, S. W. (2021) Legal contestation of artificial intelligence-related decision-making in the United Kingdom: reflections for policy. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, p. 1-35.
Drishti IAS. (2022), Artificial Intelligence in Judiciary, available at: https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/artificial-intelligence-in-judiciary.
Glover, E. (2022) Strong AI vs Weak AI: What's the Difference, available at: https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/strong-ai-weak-ai.
Hall, W., Pesenti, J. (2017) Growing the artificial intelligence industry in the UK, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/652097/Growing_the_artificial_intelligence_industry_in_the_UK.pdf.
Ho, C. W. L., Soon, D., Caals, K., Kapur, J. (2019) Governance of automated image analysis and artificial intelligence analytics in healthcare. Clinical radiology, 74(5), p. 329-337.
Hussain Z. (2022) Explained: Can Artificial Intelligence Boost The Pace Of India's Judicial System?, available at: https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/news/artificial-intelligence-and-indias-judicial-system-565113.html.
Jain, P. (2018) Artificial Intelligence for sustainable and effective justice delivery in India. OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 11(06), p. 63-70.
Khillar, S. (2020). Difference Between Strong and Weak AI. Difference Between Similar Terms and Objects, available at: http://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-strong-and-weak-ai/.
Kumar, R., Sonowal, M. (2021) Artificial Intelligence Legal Issues and Judiciary Views, 4(4), IJLMH , DOI: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.111427, p. 819.
Marchant, G. E. (2017) Artificial intelligence and the future of legal practice. ABA SciTech Law, 14(1).
Marciano, J. (2018) Who Wins in the showdown between AI & lawyers? Retrieved Dec 14, 2019, from Topbots: https://www.topbots.com/ai-vs-human-lawyersjonathan- marciano.
Mohit Gupta. (2023) ML|What is Machine Learning?, available at: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ml-machine-learning/.
Muller, C. (2020) The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law. Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
Next IAS. (2022) Artificial Intelligence and Judiciary, available at: https://www.nextias.com/current-affairs/07-03-2022/artificial-intelligence-and-judiciary
Nishith Desai Associates. (2018) The Future is here: Artificial Intelligence and Robotics. Retrieved from Nishith Desai: www.nishithdesai.com.
Norvig, P. R., Intelligence, S. A. (2002) A modern approach. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Rani, M., Nayak, R., & Vyas, OP (2015). An ontology-based adaptive personalized e-learning system, assisted by software agents on cloud storage. Knowledge-Based Systems, 90, p. 33-48.
Prison Statistics India. (2019) Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/sites/default/files/PSI-2019-27-08-2020.pdf.
Rao, A., Gore, A. (2022) Indian Courts of Law can Benefit Immensely by Adopting Artificial Intelligence Methods for a Speedy and Accurate Justice, SocArXiv, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/axjyz.
Raso, F. A., Hilligoss, H., Krishnamurthy, V., Bavitz, C., Kim, L. (2018) Artificial intelligence & human rights: Opportunities & risks. Berkman Klein Center Research Publication, No. 2018-6.
Russell, S. J. (2010) Artificial intelligence a modern approach. Pearson Education, Inc.
Swansburg, C. (2017) Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Law: The Implications of Lawyers' Professional Responsibilities for Practice Innovation. Can. Bus. LJ, 60, p. 385.
Walker-Osborn, C., Chan, C. (2017). Artificial intelligence and the law. ITNOW, 59(1), p. 36-37.
Wang, W., Siau, K. (2018). Artificial intelligence: A study on governance, policies, and regulations. MWAIS 2018 proceedings, 40.
Morgan, F. E., Boudreaux, B., Lohn, A. J., Ashby, M., Curriden, C., Klima, K., Grossman, D. (2020) Military applications of artificial intelligence: ethical concerns in an uncertain world. Santa Monica, CA:EAND Corporation.
Faggella, D. (2017) How e-commerce giants are using AI and marketing (Part 1), available at: https://martech.org/ecommerce-giants-using-ai-marketing-part-1/.
Lynch, M. (2018) 7 Roles For Artificial Intelligence In Education, available at: https://www.thetechedvocate.org/7-roles-for-artificial-intelligence-in-education/.
Luckin, R., Holmes, W., Griffiths, M., Forcier, L. B. (2016) Intelligence unleashed: An argument for AI in education.
Kriebitz, A., Lütge, C. (2020) Artificial intelligence and human rights: a business ethical assessment. Business and Human Rights Journal, 5(1), p. 84-104.
Risse, M. (2019) Human rights and artificial intelligence: an urgently needed agenda. Human Rights Quarterly, 41(1), p. 1-16.
Chatterjee, S., NS, S. (2022) Artificial intelligence and human rights: a comprehensive study from Indian legal and policy perspective. International Journal of Law and Management, 64(1), p. 110-134.
Gosine, M. (2011) Toward a sociology of human rights. Studies in Communications, 6, p. 3-24.
Mlot, S. (2018) AI Beats Human Lawyers At Their Own Game.
Marr, B. (2018) How AI and machine learning are transforming law firms and the legal sector, available at: https://www. forbes. com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/05/23/how-ai-and-machine-learningare-transforming-law-firms-and-the-legal-sector.
Canadian Association of Radiologists (CAR) Artificial Intelligence Working Group. (2019) Canadian Association of Radiologists white paper on ethical and legal issues related to artificial intelligence in radiology. Canadian Association of Radiologists' Journal, 70(2), p. 107-118.
De Sousa, W. G., Fidelis, R. A., de Souza Bermejo, P. H., da Silva Gonçalo, A. G., de Souza Melo, B. (2022) Artificial intelligence and speedy trial in the judiciary: Myth, reality or need? A case study in the Brazilian Supreme Court (STF). Government Information Quarterly, 39(1), 101660.
Xu, Z. (2022) Human judges in the era of artificial intelligence: challenges and opportunities. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 36(1), 2013652.
Volokh, E. (2019) Chief Justice Robots. Duke Law Journal, 68(6), p. 1134–92.
Tomsett, R., Preece, A., Braines, D., Cerutti, F., Chakraborty, S., Srivastava, M., Kaplan, L. (2020) Rapid trust calibration through interpretable and uncertainty-aware AI. Patterns, 1(4), Article 100049, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. patter.2020.100049.
Rodrigues, R. (2020) Legal and human rights issues of AI: Gaps, challenges and vulnerabilities. Journal of Responsible Technology, 4, Article 100005, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2020.100005.
Kazim, E., Koshiyama, A. S. (2021) A high-level overview of AI ethics. Patterns, 2(9), Article 100314, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2021.100314.
Xiao, C., Hu, X., Liu, Z., Tu, C., Sun, M. (2021) Lawformer: A pre-trained language model for Chinese legal long documents. AI Open, 2, p. 79–84, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aiopen.2021.06.003.
Janssen, M., Kuk, G. (2016) The challenges and limits of big data algorithms in technocratic governance. Government Information Quarterly, 33(3), p. 371–377. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2016.08.011.
Alarie, B., Niblett, A., Yoon, A. H. (2018) How artificial intelligence will affect the practice of law. University of Toronto Law Journal, 68, p. 106–124. https://doi.org/10.3138/utlj.2017-0052.
Weber, R. (1999) Intelligent jurisprudence research: A new concept. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, p. 164–172, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1868305.
Bielen, S., Peeters, L., Marneffe, W., Vereeck, L. (2017). Accepted manuscript equilibrium across European judiciaries backlogs and litigation rates. International Review of Law & Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2017.09.002.
Whalen-bridge, H. (2019) Court backlogs: Balancing efficiency and justice in Singapore. International Journal of the Legal Profession, 5958, p. 159–177, https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09695958.2018.1490298.
Baˇci´c, B. (2016) Predicting golf ball trajectories from swing plane: An artificial neural networks approach. Expert Systems with Applications, 65, p. 423–438, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eswa.2016.07.014.
Mikalef, P., Lemmer, K., Schaefer, C., Ylinen, M., Fjørtoft, S. O., Torvatn, H. Y., Niehaves, B. (2021) Enabling AI capabilities in government agencies: A study of determinants for European municipalities. Government Information Quarterly, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101596.
Xiao, C., Hu, X., Liu, Z., Tu, C., Sun, M. (2021) Lawformer: A pre-trained language model for Chinese legal long documents. AI Open, 2, p. 79–84, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aiopen.2021.06.003.
Liddy, E. D. (2001) Natural language processing. In: Encyclopedia of library and Information science, 2nd ed., Marcel Decker, Inc.
Omoteso, K. (2012) The application of artificial intelligence in auditing: Looking back to the future. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), p. 8490–8495, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eswa.2012.01.098.
Katsh, E. (1995) Law in a digital world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zheng, X. (2020) Application and regulation of artificial intelligence technology in judicial judgment. Chinese and Foreign Law, 32(3), p. 675–96.
Yang, L. P. (2017). Practice and think about the construction of smart courts. People’s Court News (China), published on October 25.
Zhang, S. Q. (2020) The application of artificial intelligence in trials. Journal of Shanghai Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 49(1), p. 102–10.
Ma, C. S. (2020) Reshaping effect of judicial Artificial intelligence and its limits. Legal Research, 42(4), p. 23–40.
Gao, X. Q. (2019) Chinese justice in the era of artificial intelligence. Journal of Zhejiang University (Humanities and Social Sciences), 49(4), p. 229–40.
Zhou, S. J., and Q. Wu. (2019) The possibility and limit of artificial intelligence judicial decision making. Journal of East China University of Political Science and Law, 22(1), p. 53–66.
Li, X. N. (2020) Trustworthy artificial intelligence judicature: Significance, challenges and governance responses. Law Forum, 35(4), p. 116–26.
Hastie, R. (2006) The inner world of jurors-Psychoanalysis of the jury’s adjudication process. Beijing: Peking University Press.
Shen, X. J. (2020) On the role of judges in reducing the crux of the same case with different judgments. Jiangsu Social Sciences, 4, p. 112–20.
Chen, M., and H. Xiao (2017) The Provincial Higher People’s Court held a symposium on the review of standardized sentencing intelligent auxiliary systems. Hainan Legal Times.
Jenkins, J. (2008) What can information technology do for law? Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 21(2), p. 589–607.
Alarie, B., Yoon, A. H. (2017) How artificial intelligence will affect the practice of law. In: Artificial Intelligence, Technology and the Future of Law, p. 1–15.
Barrat, J. (2015) Our final invention: Artificial intelligence and the end of the human era. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.
Zuo, W. M. (2018) Some thoughts on the application prospects of legal artificial intelligence in China. Tsinghua Law Science, 12(2), p. 108–24.
Wang, L. S. (2019) Risk and ethical regulation of judicial big data and application of Artificial intelligence technology. Research of Law and Business, 36(2), p. 101–12.
Upadhyay, N. K., Romashkin, S. (2023) Using Artificial Intelligence to Address Criminal Justice Needs, Problems, and Perspectives. In: Legal Analytics, Chapman and Hall/CRC, p. 21-34.
Zhu, F. Y., Y. D. Liu, F. Gao., Wang, K. (2019) Research on the construction of artificial intelligence judicial database based on graph fusion. Journal of Yangzhou University (Humanities and Social Sciences Edition), 23(6), p. 89–96.
Surden, H. (2019) Artificial intelligence and law: An overview. Georgia State University Law Review, 35, p. 19–22.
Alshahrani, A., Dennehy, D., M¨antym¨aki, M. (2021) An attention-based view of AI assimilation in public sector organizations: The case of Saudi Arabia. Government Information Quarterly, 39(4), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101617.
Rosenthal, J. S., Yoon, A. H. (2011) Detecting multiple authorship of United States Supreme Court legal decisions using function words. The Annals of Applied Statistics, 5(1), p. 283–308, https://doi.org/10.1214/10-AOAS378.
Mayson, S. (2019) Bias in, Bias Out. Yale Law Journal, 128(8), p. 2218–23.
Pan, L. Y. (2017) The value and orientation of artificial intelligence intervention in the judicial field. Exploration and Contention, 10, p. 101–06. https://t.cnki.net/kcms/detail?v= 3uoqIhG8C44YLTlOAiTRKibYlV5Vjs7iAEhECQAQ9aTiC5BjCgn0RgMMPPJdcytd–LzJi- a06N5Q516PTHmaFOBo49hG9rP&uniplatform=NZKP.
Calo., R., Froomkin A. M., Kerr, I. (2016) Robot law. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Zeleznikow, J. (2017) Can artificial intelligence and online dispute resolution enhance efficiency and effectiveness in courts. International Journal for Court Administration, 8(2), p. 30-45, https://doi.org/10.18352/ijca.223.
Sulleyman, A. (2017) Durham Police to Use AI to Predict Future Crimes of Suspects, despite Racial Bias Concerns. The Independent, available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/durham-police-ai-predict-crimes-artificial-intelligence-future-suspects-racial-bias-minority-report-a7732641.html.
Gabriel, H. (2010) The Criminal Liability of Artificial Intelligence Entities - from Science Fiction to Legal Social Control. Akron Intellectual Property Journal, 4(2), available at: https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/akronintellectualproperty/vol4/iss2/1?utm_source=ideaexchange.uakron.edu%2Fakronintellectualproperty%2Fvol4%2Fiss2%2F1&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages.
Matusevich (1977). 137 CLR 633; Demerian [1989] VR 97.
Gasser, U. and Almeida, V. A. (2017) A Layered Model for AI Governance. IEEE Internet Computing, 21(6), p. 58-62.
Zeichner, D. (2017) Data will change the world, and we must get its governance right. The Guardian, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/science/political-science/2017/dec/15/data-will-change-the-world-and-we-must-get-itsgovernance-right.
Published
2023-06-29
How to Cite
Sharma M. (2023). India’s Courts and Artificial Intelligence: A Future Outlook. LeXonomica, 15(1), 99-120. https://doi.org/10.18690/lexonomica.15.1.99-120.2023
Section
Articles