Publishing frequency: 2 issues per year Editor-in-Chief: Matjaž Tratnik LeXonomica is an open access peer-reviewed international journal for the study of law and economics. It is published twice a year, in June and December by University of Maribor, University Press and co-published by the Faculty of Law (Slovenia) and Institute for Economic Analysis of Law at the University of Maribor, Faculty of Law (Slovenia). The journal publishes articles that contribute to the better understanding and practice of law and economics and which are of interest to scholars, policy analysts, policymakers and practitioners. The focus of the journal is on the critical analysis of developments in law and economics throughout the world. Indexing: Emerging Sources Citation Index database (Web of Science), ScienceOpen, Dimensions. Licence: CC BY
University of Maribor, Faculty of Law, University Press
© Univerza v Mariboru, Pravna fakulteta, Univerzitetna založba Prosti pristop
Protection of Workers in Relation to the Use of Artificial Intelligence in the Workplace
This article examines the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on all stages of the employment relationship and analyses whether the current legal framework adequately protects workers from the risks posed by the use of AI in the workplace. The focus is on Slovenian labour law, while also considering relevant international and EU legal sources such as the AI Act, the Directive on Improving Working Conditions in Platform Work, the GDPR, and the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. The author addresses legal challenges including discrimination, data protection, privacy, occupational safety and health, and liability for damages. The article finds that while some protective mechanisms already exist, none of the analysed legal sources comprehensively regulate AI use in employment relationships. To ensure effective worker protection, the author argues for either the amendment of current laws or the adoption of dedicated legislation. Since AI will play an even more significant role in Labour Law in the future, it is crucial for the law to adapt in a timely manner to the new challenges posed by AI. Povzetek članka v slovenskem jeziku (abstract in Slovene language): Ta članek obravnava vpliv umetne inteligence na vse faze delovnega razmerja ter analizira, ali obstoječi pravni okvir ustrezno varuje delavce pred tveganji, ki jih prinaša uporaba umetne inteligence v delovnem okolju. Članek se osredotoča na slovensko delovno pravo, pri čemer upošteva in analizira mednarodne in pravne vire EU, kot so Akt o umetni inteligenci, Direktiva o izboljšanju delovnih pogojev pri delu prek spletnih platform, Splošna uredba o varstvu podatkov (GDPR) in Listina EU o temeljnih pravicah. Avtorica obravnava pravne izzive uporabe umetne inteligence v delovnem okolju, kot so diskriminacija, varstvo podatkov, zasebnost, varnost in zdravje pri delu ter odgovornost za povzročeno škodo. Ugotavlja, da čeprav že obstajajo nekateri zaščitni mehanizmi, nobeden izmed analiziranih pravnih virov ne ureja uporabe umetne inteligence v delovnih razmerjih celovito. Za zagotovitev učinkovite zaščite delavcev avtorica zagovarja bodisi spremembo obstoječe zakonodaje bodisi sprejetje posebne zakonodaje. Ker bo umetna inteligenca v prihodnosti igrala še pomembnejšo vlogo na področju delovnega prava, je ključno, da se pravo pravočasno prilagodi novim izzivom, ki jih prinaša umetna inteligenca.
Copyright (c) 2025 University of Maribor, University Press https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Post-Contractual Non-Compete Clause in Commercial Agency Contracts
This paper deals with the legal regime governing post-contractual non-compete clauses in commercial agency contracts, analysing Slovenian legislation and its compliance with Directive 86/653/EEC. The Slovenian Obligations Code (OZ) requires the mandatory payment of compensation for compliance with a non-compete clause only in cases where the contract is terminated for reasons attributable to the principal. The author stresses that such a regime may lead to a restriction of contractual freedom without adequate compensation, which is not in line with the spirit of the Directive. Based on a review of the regimes in respect of non-compete clauses after the termination of a commercial agency contract in various European countries, including Croatia, the author finds that the regimes vary considerably between countries. The paper also focuses on the impact of non-compete clauses on indemnity, as the OZ requires such clauses to be taken into consideration in determining the amount. The author draws attention to the need for a fair balance of interests and for legislation to be revised to ensure that agents are protected against disproportionate restrictions without adequate compensation. Povzetek članka v slovenskem jeziku (abstract in Slovene language): Članek obravnava pravno ureditev konkurenčne klavzule po prenehanju pogodbe o trgovskem zastopanju, v okviru katere analizira slovensko zakonodajo in njeno skladnost z Direktivo 86/653/EGS. Slovenski Obligacijski zakonik (OZ) zahteva obvezno plačevanje odmene za spoštovanje konkurenčne klavzule zgolj v primerih, ko je pogodba prenehala zaradi razlogov na strani naročitelja. Po mnenju avtorja takšna ureditev lahko vodi v omejitev pogodbene svobode brez ustreznega plačila, kar ni v skladu z duhom direktive. Na podlagi pregleda ureditev konkurenčne klavzule po prenehanju pogodbe o trgovskem zastopanju v različnih evropskih državah, tudi na Hrvaškem, avtor ugotavlja, da se ureditev po posameznih državah zelo razlikuje. Avtor se osredotoča tudi na vpliv konkurenčne klavzule na odpravnino, saj OZ zahteva njeno upoštevanje pri določanju višine. Opozarja tudi na potrebo po pravičnem ravnotežju interesov in prilagoditvi zakonodaje, ki bi zagotavljala zaščito zastopnika pred nesorazmernimi omejitvami brez primernega nadomestila.
monthly compensation for post-contractual non-compete clause
Strategic Integration of Sustainability, Circular Economy, and Blockchain in Slovenian Urban Governance
Slovenia has 12 urban municipalities, each with a sustainable development strategy aligned with the Agenda 2030 framework and valid through 2030. This paper examines how these strategies incorporate emerging technologies, particularly blockchain, and innovative sustainability concepts such as the circular economy. Achieving the goals of Agenda 2030, especially transitioning to a circular economy, requires doubling energy efficiency by 2030. While blockchain and the circular economy have often been studied separately, this research explores their intersection within the context of urban sustainability. The study applies qualitative content analysis to the official development strategies of all 12 urban municipalities. This analysis is complemented by semi-structured interviews with senior officials from the Ministry of the Environment, Climate and Energy, and the Vice Mayor of Ljubljana, providing institutional perspectives on strategic priorities and implementation logic. This is the first comprehensive analysis of how Slovenian urban municipalities address the interconnected themes of sustainability, circular economy, and blockchain technology. The findings contribute to academic discussions and offer practical recommendations to enhance innovation in urban sustainability planning. Povzetek članka v slovenskem jeziku (abstract in Slovene language): Slovenija ima 12 mestnih občin, vsaka z lastno strategijo trajnostnega razvoja, ki je usklajena z okvirom Agende 2030. Prispevek preučuje, kako te strategije vključujejo nove tehnologije, zlasti tehnologijo veriženja blokov (blockchain), ter inovativne trajnostne koncepte, kot je krožno gospodarstvo. Za dosego ciljev Agende 2030, predvsem pri prehodu na krožno gospodarstvo, je treba do leta 2030 podvojiti energetsko učinkovitost. Medtem ko sta blockchain in krožno gospodarstvo pogosto raziskana ločeno, ta raziskava proučuje njuno presečišče v kontekstu trajnosti mest. Študija uporablja kvalitativno analizo vsebine uradnih razvojnih strategij vseh 12 mestnih občin. Analizo dopolnjujejo polstrukturirani intervjuji z visokimi uradniki Ministrstva za okolje, podnebje in energijo ter s podžupanom Mestne občine Ljubljana, ki podajo institucionalne poglede na strateške prioritete. To je prva celovita analiza, kako slovenske mestne občine obravnavajo medsebojno povezane teme trajnosti, krožnega gospodarstva in tehnologije veriženja blokov. Ugotovitve prispevajo k akademskim razpravam in ponujajo praktična priporočila za krepitev inovativnosti pri načrtovanju trajnostnega razvoja mest. Acknowledgment The author acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency (project “Corporate accountability, human rights, and climate change: Towards coherent and just Slovenian and international legal order”, ID JP-50171”).
The Right to Rest and Disconnect in the Slovenian Legal System – A Legal Reform in the Making
The author discusses the legal aspects of the regulation of the right to daily and weekly rest and right to disconnect. The primary focus is on the study of Slovenian normative legal framework (with an emphasis on the amendment to the Employment Relationships Act, through which Slovenia regulated the right to disconnect). The measures to ensure the right to disconnect that employers must adopt (until 16th November 2024) should be, if possible, established through the collective agreement at the sector level. However, if a collective agreement with relevant content is not concluded, employers will have to adopt the measures themselves in their general acts. Following the review of sector collective agreements in the Republic of Slovenia (in September 2024), the author concludes that most collective agreements do not yet regulate the right to disconnect, and those that do, lack the necessary measures. Therefore, the inclusion of the right to disconnect at the statutory level has, so far, not resulted in any amendments to collective agreements regarding the right to disconnect. It should be noted that further research (of this kind) will have to be carried out in the forthcoming period in order to fully assess the impact of the legal reform in question. Povzetek Avtorica obravnava pravne vidike urejanja pravice do dnevnega in tedenskega počitka ter pravice do odklopa. Pri tem se osredotoča predvsem na normativni okvir slovenskega pravnega reda (s poudarkom na obravnavi novele Zakona o delovnih razmerjih (ZDR-1D), s katero je bila v Sloveniji uvedena pravica do odklopa). Ukrepi za zagotavljanje pravice do odklopa, ki jih morajo sprejeti delodajalci (do 16. novembra 2024), naj bodo, če je to mogoče, določeni v kolektivni pogodbi na ravni dejavnosti. Vendar pa, če do sklenitve kolektivne pogodbe z relevantno vsebino ne pride, bodo morali delodajalci ukrepe sprejeti sami v svojih splošnih aktih. Po pregledu kolektivnih pogodb na ravni dejavnosti v Republiki Sloveniji (v septembru 2024), avtorica ugotavlja, da večina veljavnih kolektivnih pogodb še ne ureja pravice do odklopa, tiste, ki jo urejajo, pa ne določajo ukrepov. Torej, vključitev pravice do odklopa na zakonsko raven do sedaj ni privedla do sprememb kolektivnih pogodb glede ureditve pravice do odklopa. Ob tem je treba izpostaviti, da bo za celovito oceno učinkov predmetnih zakonskih sprememb treba izvesti nadaljnje (tovrstne) raziskave še v prihajajočem časovnem obdobju.
Copyright (c) 2024 University of Maribor, University Press https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Imperative of Revising the Arbitration Exception in the Brussels I bis Regulation
Arbitration represents a popular alternative dispute resolution mechanism in the European Union (EU). However, the coexistence of arbitration and court litigation in the EU legal area has been proven to be quite difficult to regulate. At the EU level, the Brussels I bis Regulation, i.e., the main instrument governing jurisdiction and recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, explicitly states that arbitration does not fall under its scope. This ‘arbitration exception’ has led to difficulties in practice, many of which have found their way to the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU). However, as the CJEU case law shows, it only led to new questions. As these issues will keep emerging, a different solution must be found. The perfect moment for such change is now, as the reform of the Brussels I bis Regulation is ongoing. This paper thus presents the intricacies of the ‘thorny’ interplay of arbitration and court litigation in the EU. In order to remedy the existing problems in practice, two potential solutions are suggested. Povzetek članka v slovenskem jeziku (abstract in Slovene language): Arbitraža je v Evropski uniji (EU) priljubljen mehanizem alternativnega reševanja sporov. Vendar se je izkazalo, da je soobstoj arbitraže in sodnih postopkov na pravnem področju EU precej težko urediti. Na ravni EU je v uredbi Bruselj I bis, tj. glavnem instrumentu, ki ureja pristojnost ter priznavanje in izvrševanje sodnih odločb v civilnih in gospodarskih zadevah, izrecno navedeno, da arbitraža ne spada na njeno področje uporabe. Zaradi te „arbitražne izjeme“ so se v praksi pojavile težave, od katerih jih je veliko prišlo do Sodišča EU (SEU). Vendar je, kot kaže sodna praksa Sodišča EU, privedla le do novih vprašanj. Ker se bodo ta vprašanja še naprej pojavljala, je treba najti drugačno rešitev. Idealen trenutek za takšno spremembo je zdaj, ko poteka reforma uredbe Bruselj I bis. V tem prispevku so tako predstavljene zapletene podrobnosti „kočljivega“ prepletanja arbitraže in sodnih postopkov v EU. Za odpravo obstoječih težav v praksi sta predlagani dve možni rešitvi.
A Plaidoyer on State Bankruptcy: Between Economic Reality and Legal Impossibility
The history of financial crises and their serious consequences have made them a key interest for both academics and policymakers. During periods of economic growth, bankruptcy was mainly viewed as a mechanism to eliminate uncompetitive firms. However, current global economic conditions, including inflation, decreased demand, rising production costs, the energy crisis, and financial collapses in certain markets, have made it difficult for many companies to service their debts. Outdated bankruptcy regulations have worsened the situation. In the context of globalization and the internationalization of business, modernizing bankruptcy laws has become essential. Various international institutions have advocated for reforms, including redefining the concept of state bankruptcy. This paper aims to analyze the role of the state in bankruptcy, focusing not on its role as a commercial creditor or debtor but as a potential subject of bankruptcy itself. Povzetek Zgodovina finančnih kriz in njihove resne posledice so postale ključnega pomena za akademike in oblikovalce politik. V obdobjih gospodarske rasti se je na stečaj gledalo predvsem kot na mehanizem za izločitev nekonkurenčnih podjetij. Vendar so sedanje svetovne gospodarske razmere, vključno z inflacijo, zmanjšanim povpraševanjem, naraščajočimi proizvodnimi stroški, energetsko krizo in finančnimi zlomi na nekaterih trgih, mnogim podjetjem otežile odplačevanje dolgov. Zastareli stečajni predpisi so razmere še poslabšali. Zaradi globalizacije in internacionalizacije poslovanja je posodobitev stečajne zakonodaje postala nujna. Različne mednarodne institucije so se zavzele za reforme, vključno s ponovno opredelitvijo koncepta državnega stečaja. Namen tega prispevka je analizirati vlogo države v stečaju, pri čemer se ne osredotočamo na njeno vlogo kot poslovnega upnika ali dolžnika, temveč kot potencialnega subjekta samega stečaja.
Is It High Time to Redefine the Legal Framework on Cohabitation in Family Law?
Cohabitation is an institution of Slovenian family law quite similar in effect to marriage in that it creates the same rights and obligations. However, unlike marriage, its existence must be proved in each individual proceeding separately which creates difficulties, particularly in practice. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that the existence of cohabitation in the Slovenian Family Code is defined exclusively using rather vaguely defined legal standards. In this article, the author gives an overview of the current relevant case-law of Slovenian courts on cohabitation and discusses the possibilities for future legal regulation of the establishment of this community. Povzetek Zunajzakonska skupnost je institut slovenskega družinskega prava, ki je po svojih učinkih zelo podoben zakonski zvezi, saj ustvarja enake pravice in obveznosti. Vendar pa je za razliko od zakonske zveze njen obstoj treba dokazovati v vsakem posameznem postopku posebej, kar v praksi povzroča težave. Te težave dodatno poglablja dejstvo, da je obstoj zunajzakonske skupnosti v slovenskem Družinskem zakoniku opredeljen z uporabo precej ohlapno določenih pravnih standardov. Avtorica v prispevku podaja pregled aktualne relevantne sodne prakse slovenskih sodišč glede zunajzakonske skupnosti ter obravnava možnosti za njeno prihodnjo pravno ureditev.
Steps Towards a Realisation of the Right to Have a Nationality
International standards regarding the acquisition and loss of nationality are increasingly being developed by various international institutions. This paper focusses on standard setting (in particular by the United Nations, the Council of Europe and the European Union) with relevance for European countries. While international treaties on or including rules on nationality law are addressed, attention is also given to soft law instruments such as guidelines and recommendations. Moreover, several new standards have also emerged from the decisions of international courts. The authors conclude that all these rules have as result that the margin of appreciation for national governments and courts in matters related to nationality law matters is getting increasingly smaller. Povzetek Različne mednarodne institucije vse bolj razvijajo mednarodne standarde glede pridobitve in izgube državljanstva. Ta članek se osredotoča na določanje standardov (zlasti s strani Združenih narodov, Sveta Evrope in Evropske unije), ki so pomembni za evropske države. Obravnavane so mednarodne pogodbe o pravu o državljanstvu ali vključno s pravili o njem, pozornost pa je namenjena tudi instrumentom mehkega prava, kot so smernice in priporočila. Poleg tega je več novih standardov nastalo tudi na podlagi odločitev mednarodnih sodišč. Avtorja ugotavljata, da je posledica vseh teh pravil, da se polje proste presoje nacionalnih vlad in sodišč v zadevah, povezanih s pravom o državljanstvu, vse bolj zmanjšuje.
Tourism-Driven Economies and Income Disparity: Insights From a Regression Discontinuity Design
This paper aims to answer two questions: (1) Does overtourism incline countries to favorise the capital asset holder instead of workers in income distribution? (2) Does income inequality come hand in hand with overtourism? Employing Kaldor's theory of income distribution, this study adapts its theoretical framework to assess countries with a specialization in tourism. The analysis encompasses data from 115 developed countries over the period of 2000 to 2019. A Regression Discontinuity Design (RDD) methodology is utilized for the empirical investigation, categorizing key variables based on the exposure of a country's unit to a tourism-focused developmental strategy. The study reveals that adopting overtourism as a developmental strategy has led to increased inequality, characterized by a rising capital share and a declining labor share over time. Evidence supporting these findings is presented through both parametric and non-parametric Regression Discontinuity Design (RDD) analyses. Robustness checks and placebo tests corroborate these results. Povzetek Namen tega prispevka je odgovoriti na dve vprašanji: (1) Ali prekomerni turizem spodbuja države, da pri porazdelitvi dohodka dajejo prednost imetnikom kapitalskih sredstev namesto delavcem? (2) Ali je dohodkovna neenakost povezana s prekomernim turizmom? Ta študija uporablja Kaldorjevo teorijo porazdelitve dohodka in njen teoretični okvir prilagaja za oceno držav, ki so specializirane za turizem. Analiza zajema podatke iz 115 razvitih držav v obdobju od leta 2000 do leta 2019. Za empirično preiskavo je uporabljena metodologija regresijskega diskontinuitetnega načrtovanja (RDD), ki ključne spremenljivke razvršča glede na izpostavljenost enote države razvojni strategiji, usmerjeni v turizem. Študija razkriva, da je sprejetje pretiranega turizma kot razvojne strategije povzročilo večjo neenakost, za katero je značilno, da se delež kapitala sčasoma povečuje, delež dela pa zmanjšuje. Dokazi, ki potrjujejo te ugotovitve, so predstavljeni s pomočjo parametričnih in neparametričnih analiz regresijske diskontinuitete (RDD). Preverjanja zanesljivosti in placebo testi potrjujejo te rezultate.
Copyright (c) 2024 University of Maribor, University Press
Analysing the EU Data Privacy Implications Resulting From Executive Order 14086: A Legal Perspective
The exchange of personal data between the EU and the USA has sparked intense debates and contentious discussions. This heightened attention can be attributed to significant disparities in data privacy regulations between the two regions, as well as mounting concerns surrounding the potential misuse of personal information by U.S. companies and government entities. In response to these concerns, the EU implemented the GDPR in 2018, which introduced stringent regulations aimed at safeguarding data privacy. Additionally, the GDPR imposed restrictions on the transfer of personal data to countries outside the EU that lack comparable data protection measures. One of the prominent legal challenges in this context relates to concerns over the adequacy of data protection in the USA, particularly in light of U.S. surveillance programs and the potential for government access to personal data. Povzetek Izmenjava osebnih podatkov med EU in ZDA je sprožila intenzivne razprave. To povečano pozornost je mogoče pripisati velikim razlikam v predpisih o varstvu podatkov med obema regijama, pa tudi vse večji zaskrbljenosti glede morebitne zlorabe osebnih podatkov s strani ameriških podjetij in vladnih organov. Kot odgovor na te pomisleke je EU leta 2018 uvedla uredbo GDPR, s katero so bili uvedeni strogi predpisi, namenjeni varovanju zasebnosti podatkov. Poleg tega je uredba GDPR uvedla omejitve za prenos osebnih podatkov v države zunaj EU, ki nimajo primerljivih ukrepov za varstvo podatkov. Eden od vidnejših pravnih izzivov v tem okviru je povezan s pomisleki glede ustreznosti varstva podatkov v ZDA, zlasti v luči ameriških programov nadzora in možnosti vladnega dostopa do osebnih podatkov.
The Legality of the Defensive Measures Taken by the USA and the UK in Response to the Houthi Attacks
The article delves into the legality of defensive actions taken by the USA and the UK in response to the Houthi attacks in the Red Sea. Despite assertions that such actions are justified under the right to self-defence, legal ambiguities persist in international law. The authors argue that while attacks on merchant vessels by non-state actors may constitute armed aggression, clarity is lacking on whether they meet the criteria for self-defence. The USA and UK stress that attacks on their warships validate their defensive measures, framing them as necessary responses to significant threats. However, the authors contend that the principle of proportionality may have been disregarded, urging restraint in the use of force to safeguard ships while respecting Yemen’s sovereignty. The article underscores the need for a nuanced approach to assessing the legality and necessity of military actions in complex conflict scenarios. Povzetek Članek obravnava zakonitost obrambnih ukrepov ZDA in Združenega kraljestva kot odziv na napade Hutijev v Rdečem morju. Kljub trditvam, da so takšni ukrepi upravičeni na podlagi pravice do samoobrambe, v mednarodnem pravu še vedno obstajajo pravne nejasnosti. Avtorja trdita, da čeprav lahko napadi nedržavnih akterjev na trgovska plovila pomenijo oboroženo agresijo, ni jasno, ali izpolnjujejo merila za samoobrambo. ZDA in Združeno kraljestvo poudarjata, da napadi na njune vojaške ladje potrjujejo njune obrambne ukrepe, saj jih opredeljujeta kot nujen odziv na pomembne grožnje. Avtorja prispevka ugotavljata, da morda ni bilo upoštevano načelo sorazmernosti, in pozivata k zadržanosti pri uporabi sile za zaščito ladij ob spoštovanju suverenosti Jemna. Članek poudarja potrebo po diferenciranem pristopu k ocenjevanju zakonitosti in nujnosti vojaških ukrepov v zapletenih konfliktnih scenarijih.
Natural Person and Legal Entity as a Guarantor in the Croatian Criminal Law
The paper analyzes the specificity of unreal criminal offenses of omission, which is manifested in the fact that those criminal offenses are committed by the guarantor. Given the specificity and rarity of punishable conduct of omission, the paper analyzes the legal position of the guarantor (as a natural person or legal entity) whose duty is to protect certain, but not all, legal goods. In addition to the fact that responsibility for omission is exceptional, the statuses that individuals have in society are explained through the prism of the grounds of the guarantor duty in Croatian but also from the aspect of different legal systems. The concept of the legal bases of the guarantor's responsibility, which represent the sources of unlawfulness and culpability in the guarantor's duty, is elaborated in detail, with a special emphasis on the guarantor's actions in mistake. Povzetek V prispevku je analizirana posebnost kaznivih dejanj neprave opustitve, ki se kaže v tem, da ta kazniva dejanja izvrši garant. Glede na specifičnost in redkost kaznivih dejanj opustitve članek analizira pravni položaj garanta (kot fizične ali pravne osebe), katerega dolžnost je varovati določene, vendar ne vseh pravnih dobrin. Poleg dejstva, da je odgovornost za opustitev izjemna, so položaji, ki jih imajo posamezniki v družbi, pojasnjeni skozi prizmo razlogov za dolžnost garanta na hrvaškem, pa tudi z vidika drugih pravnih sistemov. Koncept pravnih podlag garantove odgovornosti, ki predstavljajo podlage za protipravnost in krivdo pri garantovi dolžnosti, je podrobno obdelan, s posebnim poudarkom na delovanju garanta v zmoti.
How the Use of Fees, Fines and Bail Have Been Used to Criminalize Poverty: Can Reforms Help Put the Genie Back in the Bottle?
The rallying cry of many American politicians is Law and Order. This tactic wins votes. As a result of its Wars on Crime, Drugs, and the Impoverished, America has the highest rate of incarceration in the world. This article explores how, over the past few decades, politicians have charged criminal defendants every imaginable fee and fine as they wind their way through the criminal justice system in order to fund the massive prison complex that the politicians do not want to tax Americans for. These tactics have criminalized poverty, as they disproportionately impact the most marginalized in American society. These abusive and unfair tactics have drawn scrutiny from policymakers in recent years, including the American Bar Association, which adopted stringent guidelines to help inform policymakers of this critical problem in an effort to reign in the abusive use of fees and fines. The paper discusses recent reforms, many at the urging of the Department of Justice, Office for Access to Justice, in conjunction with the ABA. It discusses the main Supreme Court cases that considered the Excessive Fines Clause of the Eighth Amendment. Povzetek Številni ameriški politiki se sklicujejo na zakon in red. Ta taktika prinaša glasove. Zaradi vojn proti kriminalu, drogam in obubožanim ima Amerika najvišji delež zapornikov na svetu. Ta članek raziskuje, kako so politiki v zadnjih nekaj desetletjih obdolžencem kaznivih dejanj zaračunavali vse možne pristojbine in globe, ko so se prebijali skozi kazenskopravni sistem, da bi financirali ogromen zaporniški kompleks, za katerega politiki nočejo plačevati davkov Američanom. Ta taktika je kriminalizirala revščino, saj nesorazmerno močno vpliva na najbolj marginalizirane v ameriški družbi. Te zlorabljajoče in nepoštene taktike so bile v zadnjih letih deležne pozornosti oblikovalcev politike, vključno z Ameriško odvetniško zbornico, ki je sprejela stroge smernice za pomoč pri obveščanju oblikovalcev politike o tem kritičnem problemu, da bi omejili zlorabljajočo uporabo pristojbin in glob. V dokumentu so obravnavane nedavne reforme, ki so bile številne izvedene na pobudo Urada za dostop do pravnega varstva pri Ministrstvu za pravosodje v sodelovanju z združenjem ABA. Obravnava glavne primere Vrhovnega sodišča, ki so obravnavali klavzulo o pretiranih globah iz osme spremembe.
An Event Study of Perindopril (Servier) Reverse Payment Patent Settlements' Case: Is Krka Truly an Exception Within the Pay-For-Delay Commission Decision?
The article aims to fill the gap in the literature on reverse payment patent settlements between patent-holders and generic pharmaceutical firms in EU competition law. Based on the event study of the Perindopril (Servier) case of the European Commission, the research provides a novel assessment of the welfare effects of Commission enforcement and the following judiciary decision on the legality of Commission sanctions. Within the case, the analysis paid particular attention to the generic corporation Krka because Commission fined Krka for the settlement with Servier that did not include the reverse payment, and the Commission decision did not survive the scrutiny of the General Court. The relative economic power of Krka in the perindopril market is also a factor that, together with the enforcement effect assessment, provides a different perspective of the event study's normative implications to the existing research. Povzetek Namen članka je zapolniti vrzel v literaturi o poravnavah v zvezi s povratnimi plačili med imetniki patentov in generičnimi farmacevtskimi podjetji na področju konkurenčnega prava EU. Raziskava temelji na študiji dogodka v zadevi Evropske komisije Perindopril (Servier) in zagotavlja novo oceno učinkov izvrševanja s strani Komisije na blaginjo in naknadne sodne odločitve o zakonitosti sankcij Komisije. V okviru primera je analiza posebno pozornost namenila generični korporaciji Krka, saj je Komisija naložila globo družbi Krka zaradi poravnave s podjetjem Servier, ki ni vključevala povratnega plačila, odločitev Komisije pa ni prestala presoje Splošnega sodišča. Relativna gospodarska moč družbe Krka na trgu perindoprila je prav tako dejavnik, ki skupaj z oceno učinka izvrševanja zagotavlja drugačen pogled na normativne posledice študije dogodka v primerjavi z obstoječimi raziskavami.
Copyright (c) 2023 University of Maribor, University Press
India's Courts and Artificial Intelligence: A Future Outlook
In recent years, the legal system has used artificial intelligence technology extensively. Artificial intelligence for judicial purposes is more efficient, knowledgeable, and impartial than human judges. It has its limitations, largely based on big data, algorithms, and computing power rather than organic intelligence. Judiciary artificial intelligence cannot completely replace human judges because of differences in conceptual framework, application scenario, and ability and potential. Unambiguously stating that judicial artificial intelligence is never a replacement for human judges is crucial. The study aims to investigate the legal issues and the various ways that AI impacts the legal system. The research methodology is qualitative, inductive and descriptive. Povzetek V zadnjih letih pravni sistem pogosto uporablja tehnologijo umetne inteligence. Umetna inteligenca je v sodne namene učinkovitejša, bolj kompetentna in nepristranska od človeških sodnikov. Ima svoje omejitve, saj večinoma temelji na velikih količinah podatkov, algoritmih in računalniški moči, ne pa na organski inteligenci. Umetna inteligenca v pravosodju ne more popolnoma nadomestiti človeških sodnikov zaradi razlik v konceptualnem okviru, scenariju uporabe ter sposobnosti in potenciala. Nedvoumna izjava, da sodniška umetna inteligenca nikoli ne bo nadomestila človeških sodnikov, je ključnega pomena. Namen študije je raziskati pravna vprašanja in različne načine, kako umetna inteligenca vpliva na pravni sistem. Metodologija raziskave je kvalitativna, induktivna in deskriptivna.
The Right to a Fair Trial of Legal Persons Throughout the Case Law of the ECHR and the CJEU
The ambition of this article is an analysis of the right to a fair trial of legal entities through the prism of the jurisprudence of the ECtHR and the CJEU. Despite the factual admission of the right to a fair trial to companies in the case law of the Courts, the absence of a strong theoretical foundation and persuasive explanation in their judgments raises ambiguity as to the ECtHR and the CJEU positions in that regard. In that context, the article examines landmark cases of both Courts and relevant doctrinal considerations concerning the application of guarantees provided by the right to a fair trial to legal persons. The ECtHR case law is considered inconsistent and the Strasbourg court, it appears, tries to avoid any far-reaching conclusions. The CJEU in its case law, due to the inherent focus of EU law on economic values, interprets the right to a fair trial of companies broadly, and sometimes, broader than it is needed. It is concluded that the issue requires more attention from both the Courts and legal scholars, in the view of serious consequences the ignorance and unfounded admission of any fundamental right could entail to the society and economy. Povzetek Namen tega članka je analiza pravice pravnih oseb do poštenega sojenja skozi prizmo sodne prakse ESČP in Sodišča EU. Kljub dejanskemu priznavanju pravice do poštenega sojenja gospodarskim družbam v sodni praksi sodišč odsotnost trdne teoretične podlage in prepričljive razlage v njihovih sodbah povzroča nejasnosti glede stališč ESČP in SEU v zvezi s tem. V tem kontekstu so v članku obravnavane prelomne zadeve obeh sodišč in ustrezni doktrinarni premisleki glede uporabe jamstev, ki jih zagotavlja pravica do poštenega sojenja, za pravne osebe. Sodna praksa ESČP velja za nedosledno, sodišče v Strasbourgu pa se, kot kaže, poskuša izogniti daljnosežnim sklepom. Sodišče EU v svoji sodni praksi zaradi inherentne osredotočenosti prava EU na gospodarske vrednote pravico do poštenega sojenja družb razlaga široko in včasih širše, kot je to potrebno. Ugotavlja se, da je treba temu vprašanju nameniti več pozornosti tako s strani sodišč kot pravnih strokovnjakov, in sicer zaradi resnih posledic, ki bi jih nepoznavanje in neutemeljeno priznavanje katere koli temeljne pravice lahko imelo za družbo in gospodarstvo.
Privacy and Data Protection Concerns in the Regulatory Framework of Slovenian Energy Law
The implementation of smart energy systems (SES) in the Slovenian energy sector has raised significant privacy and data protection concerns. The collection and processing of personal data from energy consumers, as well as cybersecurity threats, pose risks that must be addressed. The legal framework governing privacy and data protection in the energy field in Slovenia is based on the GDPR, ZOEE, ZVPot-1, ZVOP-2 and others, which impose significant obligations on entities processing personal data. To mitigate these risks, exact terminology must be used to implement privacy, data protection and also cybersecurity measures and ensure compliance with the legal framework. Povzetek Izvajanje pametnih energetskih sistemov (SES) v slovenskem energetskem sektorju je sprožilo precejšnje pomisleke glede zasebnosti in varstva podatkov. Zbiranje in obdelava osebnih podatkov odjemalcev energije ter grožnje kibernetski varnosti predstavljajo tveganja, ki jih je treba obravnavati. Pravni okvir, ki ureja zasebnost in varstvo podatkov na področju energetike v Sloveniji, temelji na GDPR, ZOEE, ZVPot-1, ZVOP-2 itd., ki subjektom, ki obdelujejo osebne podatke, nalagajo pomembne obveznosti. Za zmanjšanje teh tveganj je treba uporabljati natančno terminologijo za izvajanje ukrepov na področju zasebnosti, varstva podatkov in tudi kibernetske varnosti ter zagotavljati skladnost s pravnim okvirom.
Copyright (c) 2023 University of Maribor, University Press https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Some Comments on the Legal Regulation on Misinformation and Cyber Attacks Conducted Through Online Platforms
What are the tools to effectively manage the new threats to the free flow of opinions to protect this essential precondition for a pluralist social and political system? As a basis for action at the community level, how can we protect users who use internet platforms to inform themselves on issues of public interest from disinformation attacks through cyberspace? Effective action against cyber-attacks that adversely affect certain fundamental rights requires a combination of instruments, creating the technological, economic, human and legal conditions for meaningful counter-measures. In legal terms, the guarantees that platform providers must offer each user to prevent cyber attacks and illegal content should be laid down, and legal instruments should be put in place to ensure they are always available. In addition, in the event of misusing any content shared on the platform or of personal data made available to the operator, clear responsibilities should be established, and the extent to which the responsibility for protection lies with the platform operator or the user should be clarified. In our study, we outline regulatory options to address these challenges. Povzetek Kakšna so orodja za učinkovito obvladovanje novih groženj prostemu pretoku mnenj, da bi zaščitili ta bistveni pogoj za pluralni družbeni in politični sistem? Kako lahko uporabnike, ki uporabljajo spletne platforme za informiranje o vprašanjih javnega interesa, zaščitimo pred dezinformacijskimi napadi v kibernetskem prostoru kot podlago za ukrepanje na ravni skupnosti? Za učinkovito ukrepanje proti kibernetskim napadom, ki negativno vplivajo na nekatere temeljne pravice, je potrebna kombinacija instrumentov, ki ustvarjajo tehnološke, gospodarske, človeške in pravne pogoje za smiselne protiukrepe. V pravnem smislu je treba določiti jamstva, ki jih morajo ponudniki platform ponuditi vsakemu uporabniku za preprečevanje kibernetskih napadov in nezakonitih vsebin, ter vzpostaviti pravne instrumente, da bodo vedno na voljo. Poleg tega bi bilo treba v primeru zlorabe katere koli vsebine, ki se deli na platformi, ali osebnih podatkov, ki so na voljo upravljavcu, določiti jasne odgovornosti in pojasniti, v kolikšni meri je za zaščito odgovoren upravljavec platforme ali uporabnik. V naši študiji opisujemo regulativne možnosti za reševanje teh izzivov.
Climate Change-Related Displacement and the Determination of Refugee Status under the 1951 Refugee Convention
Climate change and climate-driven migration are two of the defining challenges of the twenty-first century, and there is no legal framework for protecting those displaced across national borders for climate-related reasons. The 1951 Refugee Convention hardly applies to human mobility in the context of climate change. This paper was written in the hopes of initiating a discussion concerning an alternative perspective through which persons fleeing natural disasters linked to climate change may satisfy the eligibility conditions for recognition of refugee status. Expanding the definition of refugee as defined in the Convention by including the notion of vulnerability to climate disasters that are caused by the underlying socio-economic conditions in the claimant’s home country and the role of discrimination in causing differential exposure to the climate-related disasters in legal definitions might open the door for the availability of refugee status for persons fleeing in the context of climate change. This paper proposes the adoption of a reformed human rights-based interpretation, particularly with regard to the individual nature of refugee status determination. Recalibrating the Convention to facilitate climate-induced migration could reduce political tension and social unrest in receiving countries. Povzetek Podnebne spremembe in migracije, ki jih povzroča podnebje, so eden od glavnih izzivov enaindvajsetega stoletja, vendar ni pravnega okvira za zaščito oseb, ki so zaradi podnebnih sprememb razseljene prek državnih meja. Konvencija o statusu beguncev iz leta 1951 se skorajda ne uporablja za mobilnost ljudi v okviru podnebnih sprememb. Ta dokument je bil napisan v upanju, da bo sprožil razpravo o alternativni perspektivi, s katero bi osebe, ki bežijo pred naravnimi nesrečami, povezanimi s podnebnimi spremembami, lahko izpolnile pogoje za priznanje statusa begunca. Razširitev opredelitve begunca, kot je opredeljena v Konvenciji, z vključitvijo pojma ranljivosti za podnebne nesreče, ki so posledica temeljnih družbenoekonomskih razmer v prosilčevi matični državi, in vloge diskriminacije pri povzročanju različne izpostavljenosti s podnebnimi nesrečami povezanim nesrečam v pravne opredelitve bi lahko odprla vrata za pridobitev statusa begunca za osebe, ki bežijo zaradi podnebnih sprememb. Ta dokument predlaga sprejetje reformirane razlage, ki temelji na človekovih pravicah, zlasti glede individualne narave določanja statusa begunca. Preoblikovanje Konvencije za olajšanje migracij, ki jih povzročajo podnebne spremembe, bi lahko zmanjšalo politične napetosti in socialne nemire v državah sprejema.
climate-driven migration or displacement
Enforcement of Choice of Court Agreements Granting International Jurisdiction to Albanian Courts
This paper aims to critically analyse the formal and substantive validity of choice of court agreements in favour of Albanian courts. The provisions of the Albanian Private International Law and their implementation by Albanian courts are in the focus. However, considering that the Albanian Private International Law provisions are approximated with the EU acquis communautaire and since the provisions on choice of courts agreements are drafted in terms that are fully compatible with the Council Regulation 44/2001 of December 22, 2000 "On Jurisdiction, Recognition and Implementation of Judicial Decisions in Civil Matters and Trade” (Brussels I Regulation), the interpretation of the Albanian law provisions is also done in the light of the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union. After a thorough analysis of the Albanian Private International Law provisions concerning choice of court agreements and of the Albanian case law, the paper concludes that they are not always interpreted and applied correctly and that the rich case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union can provide valuable guidance. Povzetek Namen tega prispevka je kritično analizirati formalno in vsebinsko veljavnost sporazumov o izbiri sodišča v korist albanskih sodišč. V ospredju so določbe albanskega mednarodnega zasebnega prava in njihovo izvajanje s strani albanskih sodišč. Ker pa so določbe albanskega mednarodnega zasebnega prava približane pravnemu redu EU in ker so določbe o sporazumih o izbiri sodišča oblikovane tako, da so v celoti skladne z Uredbo Sveta 44/2001 z dne 22. decembra 2000 „O pristojnosti, priznavanju in izvajanju sodnih odločb v civilnih in gospodarskih zadevah“ (Uredba Bruselj I), je razlaga določb albanskega prava opravljena tudi ob upoštevanju sodne prakse Sodišča Evropske unije. Po temeljiti analizi določb albanskega mednarodnega zasebnega prava o sporazumih o izbiri sodišča in albanske sodne prakse članek ugotavlja, da se te določbe ne razlagajo in uporabljajo vedno pravilno ter da lahko bogata sodna praksa Sodišča Evropske unije zagotovi dragocene smernice.
Protection of an Individual's Information Interest in the Light of Regulation No. 1049/2001 on Public Access to Documents of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission
The right to information, guaranteed by various legal acts, includes the right to access the content of documentation held by public entities. At the EU level, this right is regulated, inter alia, by Regulation (EU) No. 1049/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council, dated 30 May 2001, regarding public access to documents of the European Parliament, the Council, and the Commission. The act outlines various measures and mechanisms that can be assumed to constitute instruments for protecting an individual's information interest. This article provides an analysis of the relevant provisions, which regulate these instruments. The in-depth characterization aims to enable a stance on the correctness of the protective function attributed to access to EU documentation itself, as well as to its constituent elements. Povzetek Pravica do obveščenosti, ki jo zagotavljajo različni pravni akti, vključuje pravico do dostopa do vsebine dokumentacije, ki jo hranijo javni subjekti. Na ravni EU to pravico med drugim ureja Uredba (EU) št. 1049/2001 Evropskega parlamenta in Sveta z dne 30. maja 2001 o dostopu javnosti do dokumentov Evropskega parlamenta, Sveta in Komisije. V aktu so opisani različni ukrepi in mehanizmi, za katere se lahko domneva, da so instrumenti za zaščito posameznikovega informacijskega interesa. Ta članek vsebuje analizo ustreznih določb, ki urejajo te instrumente. Namen poglobljene karakterizacije je omogočiti stališče o pravilnosti zaščitne funkcije, ki se pripisuje samemu dostopu do dokumentacije EU, pa tudi njegovim sestavnim elementom.
Charting the Course: Total Factor Productivity Trends in Croatia Post-pre-bankruptcy Act
The synthetic control method (SCM) is a valuable tool for unbiased pre-bankruptcy reform analysis in economic policy evaluations. This study utilizes SCM to assess the impact of the Financial Operations and Pre-Bankruptcy Settlement Act (AFOPBS) on Croatia's total factor productivity (TFP). Control units and weights were meticulously chosen to construct a synthetic control for Croatia, creating a counterfactual scenario for the reform's absence. The policy's impact was quantified by comparing TFP growth post-policy between Croatia and its synthetic control. Placebo tests confirmed the results' significance, and further validation was achieved through panel difference-in-differences analysis (PDID). Our findings show that the pre-bankruptcy reform in late 2012 effectively reduced the gap between Croatia and its synthetic control throughout the post-treatment years. However, it had two short-term adverse impacts and a subsequent recovery-like phase. These effects were statistically significant and confirmed by cross-validation. In conclusion, Croatia's pre-bankruptcy reform significantly influenced TFP volatility, highlighting SCM's effectiveness in evaluating economic policies, especially those crucial for economic growth Povzetek Metoda sintetične kontrole (SCM) je dragoceno orodje za nepristransko analizo reforme pred stečajem pri vrednotenju ekonomskih politik. Ta študija uporablja SCM za oceno vpliva Zakona o finančnem poslovanju in predstečajni poravnavi (AFOPBS) na skupno faktorsko produktivnost (TFP) na Hrvaškem. Kontrolne enote in uteži so bile skrbno izbrane za oblikovanje sintetične kontrole za Hrvaško, s čimer je bil ustvarjen nasprotni scenarij za odsotnost reforme. Vpliv politike je bil količinsko opredeljen s primerjavo rasti skupne faktorske produktivnosti po uvedbi politike med Hrvaško in njeno sintetično kontrolo. Placebo testi so potrdili pomembnost rezultatov, nadaljnja potrditev pa je bila dosežena s panelno analizo razlik v razlikah (PDID). Naše ugotovitve kažejo, da je reforma pred stečajem konec leta 2012 učinkovito zmanjšala razliko med Hrvaško in njeno sintetično kontrolo v vseh letih po izvedbi ukrepa. Vendar je imela dva kratkoročna negativna učinka in poznejšo fazo, podobno okrevanju. Ti učinki so bili statistično značilni in potrjeni z navzkrižnim preverjanjem. Zaključimo lahko, da je hrvaška reforma pred stečajem pomembno vplivala na nestanovitnost skupne faktorske produktivnosti, kar poudarja učinkovitost SCM pri ocenjevanju gospodarskih politik, zlasti tistih, ki so ključne za gospodarsko rast
The Ethics of Climate Change, Climate Policy and Climate Justice
The fossil fuel industry is the driving force behind our current carbon-centric socioeconomic systems. The industry has imposed fossil fuel-dependent business models and behaviours on the global socioeconomic system. The actions and plans of the industry are far from being aligned with the 1.5°C target set by the Paris Agreement. Moreover, they remain overlooked in the global climate discourse and negotiations. This paper builds its arguments starting from a moral issue: climate change is an ethical failure, and the industry has had a unique role in causing, shaping, advancing, and defending the current unsustainable fossil fuel-dependent global economy, and thus bears responsibility and has duties of reparation to limit consequent harm. This paper examines the various moral principles of rectifying the unjust situation created by the actions that produced climate change. Although the Paris Agreement assigns responsibilities to states, climate lawsuits against fossil fuel companies are also on the rise. This paper helps link legal frameworks and the relationship between climate justice, sustainable development, and environmental human rights to make radical, systemic changes to ensure a sustainable future. Povzetek Industrija fosilnih goriv je gonilna sila naših sedanjih družbeno-gospodarskih sistemov, ki so osredotočeni na ogljik. Ta industrija je v svetovni družbeno-gospodarski sistem uvedla poslovne modele in vedenje, ki so odvisni od fosilnih goriv. Ukrepi in načrti industrije še zdaleč niso usklajeni s ciljem 1,5 °C, določenim v Pariškem sporazumu. Poleg tega ostaja spregledana v svetovnem podnebnem diskurzu in pogajanjih. Ta članek gradi svoje argumente, izhajajoč iz moralnega vprašanja: podnebne spremembe so etična napaka, industrija pa je imela edinstveno vlogo pri povzročanju, oblikovanju, pospeševanju in obrambi sedanjega netrajnostnega svetovnega gospodarstva, odvisnega od fosilnih goriv, zato nosi odgovornost in dolžnost povračila škode, da bi omejila posledično škodo. V tem prispevku so obravnavana različna moralna načela za odpravo nepravičnega stanja, ki je nastalo zaradi dejanj, ki so povzročila podnebne spremembe. Čeprav Pariški sporazum odgovornost nalaga državam, so v porastu tudi podnebne tožbe proti podjetjem za fosilna goriva. Prispevek pomaga povezati pravne okvire in razmerje med podnebno pravičnostjo, trajnostnim razvojem in okoljskimi človekovimi pravicami za korenite sistemske spremembe, ki bodo zagotovile trajnostno prihodnost.
environmental human rights-based climate litigation
Online Gambling Regulatory Policy: An Analysis from the Perspective of the Rights and Duties of the Gambler in Portugal
Online games constitute an increasingly widespread activity that carries increased risks for players, especially minors. This study analyses the effectiveness of protecting online players' rights considering Portuguese legislation, which originates from the common European rules established for all Member States of the European Union. This study aims to characterise the Portuguese regulatory policy for games of chance, especially in the online gaming modality, its regulatory principles, its characteristics, and purposes, and to describe how it articulates with European recommendations. Based on this characterisation, this study analyses the effectiveness of compliance with the fundamental aspects of this regulatory policy by entities operating online gambling from the perspective of protecting the rights and duties of players, as enshrined. It concludes that some of these rights need to be sufficiently protected. The methodology includes analysing the websites of licensed entities and providing a questionnaire to young people who frequently play online. The study shows that the information on online gaming platforms reasonably complies with the current legal requirements and that players must be fully aware of all their rights. It also highlights that such rights are not fully protected in sensitive aspects. Povzetek članka v slovenskem jeziku (abstract in Slovene language) Spletne igre so vse bolj razširjena dejavnost, ki prinaša večja tveganja za igralce, zlasti mladoletnike. Ta študija analizira učinkovitost zaščite pravic spletnih igralcev ob upoštevanju portugalske zakonodaje, ki izhaja iz skupnih evropskih pravil, določenih za vse države članice Evropske unije. Namen te študije je opisati portugalsko regulativno politiko za igre na srečo, zlasti na področju spletnih iger na srečo, njena regulativna načela, značilnosti in namene ter opisati, kako se ujema z evropskimi priporočili. Na podlagi te opredelitve ta študija analizira učinkovitost upoštevanja temeljnih vidikov te regulativne politike s strani subjektov, ki prirejajo spletne igre na srečo, in z vidika varstva pravic in dolžnosti igralcev. Ugotavlja, da je treba nekatere od teh pravic zaščititi v zadostni meri. Metodologija vključuje analizo spletnih strani licenciranih subjektov in posredovanje vprašalnika mladim, ki pogosto igrajo na spletu. Študija kaže, da so informacije na spletnih igralnih platformah v razumni meri skladne z veljavnimi zakonskimi zahtevami in da se morajo igralci v celoti zavedati vseh svojih pravic. Poudarja tudi, da te pravice v občutljivih vidikih niso v celoti zaščitene.
Provisional Security of Creditors in Cross-border Civil and Commercial Matters
Provisional measures can be of utmost importance to creditors especially in relationships with a cross-border element. The Regulation 1215/2012 is the legal source that provides rules regarding the jurisdiction to issue a provisional measure but also offers imperfect provisions regarding the recognition and enforcement of foreign provisional measures issued in other Member States of the European Union. Due to the inadequate regulation, CJEU case law has played an important role, but nevertheless the article finds and opens new questions that have not yet been answered.
Best Available Techniques Principle: International Treaties and Drafting in National Legislation
Best available techniques (BAT) is a legal principle with origins in public international law. Through the activities of drafters at national levels, it finds its various expressions in the legal systems of individual states. This article will analyse the possible approaches to including the BAT principle in national legislation and the general guidelines that drafters should follow to achieve the desired effectiveness of legislation. International treaties are to be understood as partial drafting instructions. A case study will be made for the Slovenian legal system, where the expression of the BAT principle within the Slovenian national regulatory framework will be critically evaluated. Povzetek. Najboljše razpoložljive tehnologije (BAT) so pravno načelo, ki izvira iz mednarodnega javnega prava. Z dejavnostmi pripravljavcev zakonodaje na nacionalnih ravneh je dobilo različne izraze v pravnih sistemih posameznih držav. V tem članku bodo analizirani možni pristopi k vključitvi načela BAT v nacionalno zakonodajo in splošne smernice, ki bi jih morali upoštevati pripravljavci zakonodaje, da bi dosegli želeno učinkovitost zakonodaje. Mednarodne pogodbe je treba razumeti kot delna navodila za pripravo besedil. Izdelana bo študija primera slovenskega pravnega sistema, kjer bo kritično ovrednoteno izražanje načela BAT v slovenskem nacionalnem zakonodajnem okviru.
Copyright (c) 2022 University of Maribor, University Press https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Cornerstones for the Cross-border Attorney Service and the Importance of the EU-En4s Project and Partner Networking
Many papers and contributions identify the processes by which consistent cross‐border service to the client may be achieved within globally integrated firms. The role of international attorneys is becoming very complex due to new global challenges. To surpass these obstacles, the principal solution is to cooperate and develop close collaboration with colleagues. This is why projects such as EU-En4s Diversity of Enforcement Titles in cross-border Debt Collection in EU, led by the University of Maribor, are so relevant. Povzetek. Številni članki in prispevki opredeljujejo postopke, s katerimi je mogoče v globalno povezanih podjetjih doseči dosledno čezmejno storitev za stranko. Vloga mednarodnih odvetnikov postaja zaradi novih globalnih izzivov zelo zapletena. Za premagovanje teh ovir je glavna rešitev sodelovanje in razvijanje tesnega sodelovanja s kolegi. Zato so projekti, kot je EU-En4s Diversity of Enforcement Titles in cross-border Debt Collection in EU, ki ga vodi Univerza v Mariboru, tako pomembni.
The Gravity Model of Trade: The Case of Central and Eastern Europe
The main patterns of international trade in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe have been analysed in the paper. The gravity model, estimated for a large sample of bilateral trade flows for the analysed states, has been used as a benchmark. The model has been updated according to the modern conditions in the international economy. The emphasis has been made on the analysis of products' trade since the trade of services requires separate modelling. The purpose of the paper was to find the main factors that determine gravity trends in international trade in Central and Eastern Europe. It has been proven that the distance between countries and their gross domestic products are still crucial factors which determine trade flows between them. Additionally, the influence of the product structure of export has been considered. A higher share of value-added export increases bilateral trade between the countries. Common past for the analysed countries boosts trade between them because of the presence of historical trade traditions and the development of regional production agglomeration. It has been proven that the gravity equation remains a simple and reliable model of the factors which determine the trade between countries. Povzetek. V prispevku so analizirani glavni vzorci mednarodne trgovine v državah srednje in vzhodne Evrope. Kot merilo je bil uporabljen gravitacijski model, ocenjen za velik vzorec dvostranskih trgovinskih tokov analiziranih držav. Model je bil posodobljen glede na sodobne razmere v mednarodnem gospodarstvu. Poudarek je bil na analizi trgovine z izdelki, saj trgovina s storitvami zahteva ločeno modeliranje. Namen prispevka je bil ugotoviti glavne dejavnike, ki določajo gravitacijska gibanja v mednarodni trgovini v Srednji in Vzhodni Evropi. Izkazalo se je, da sta razdalja med državami in njihov bruto domači proizvod še vedno ključna dejavnika, ki določata trgovinske tokove med njimi. Poleg tega je bil upoštevan tudi vpliv strukture izdelkov pri izvozu. Večji delež izvoza z dodano vrednostjo povečuje dvostransko trgovino med državami. Skupna preteklost analiziranih držav spodbuja trgovino med njimi zaradi prisotnosti zgodovinskih trgovinskih tradicij in razvoja regionalnih proizvodnih aglomeracij. Dokazano je bilo, da gravitacijska enačba ostaja preprost in zanesljiv model dejavnikov, ki določajo trgovino med državami.
The Principle of Primary Consideration of the Best Interests of the Child in Civil Procedure in Ukraine
The article examines approaches to understanding the terms "children's interests" and "the best interests of children" in scientific theory and law enforcement practice in Ukraine. The authors summarise the experience of Ukrainian judicial practice in observing the principle of primary consideration and ensuring the best interests of the child. This experience is being studied on the example of resolving civil cases on determining the place of residence of a child for the most part. The authors make suggestions concerning the application of Article 3 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The authors propose to understand the principle of primary consideration and ensuring the best interests of children as the use of the best possible ways and means of resolving cases with the participation of children, which would meet their contemporary interests, consider their existing needs along with the perspectives for the future to the greatest extent possible. Povzetek. V članku so obravnavani pristopi k razumevanju pojmov "interesi otrok" in "največja korist otrok" v znanstveni teoriji in praksi kazenskega pregona v Ukrajini. Avtorji povzemajo izkušnje ukrajinske sodne prakse pri spoštovanju načela primarnega upoštevanja in zagotavljanju otrokovih koristi. Te izkušnje so proučene na primeru reševanja civilnih zadev o določitvi otrokovega prebivališča v pretežnem delu. Avtorji podajajo predloge v zvezi z uporabo 3. člena Konvencije ZN o otrokovih pravicah. Avtorji predlagajo, da se načelo prednostnega upoštevanja in zagotavljanja otrokovih koristi razume kot uporaba najboljših možnih načinov in sredstev reševanja zadev ob sodelovanju otrok, ki bi v največji možni meri ustrezali njihovim sodobnim interesom, upoštevali njihove obstoječe potrebe skupaj s perspektivami za prihodnost.
the determination of the best interests of children
the determination of the child's place of residence
Allowance for Corporate Equity: The Latest Developments in European Union Law
There are two ways of financing companies, namely equity financing and debt financing. These two ways of financing companies are relevant for tax law because the payment of interest arising from loan financing reduces the tax base of income tax, and the payment of dividends paid due to ownership of the company does not reduce the tax liability of the company. Therefore, over time, attempting to achieve neutrality in corporate financing was a challenging task. One of those ways is Allowance for Corporate Equity. In May 2022, the European Commission adopted a Proposal for a Council Directive on laying down rules on a debt-equity bias reduction allowance and on limiting the deductibility of interest for corporate income tax purposes, the so-called DEBRA proposal, which seeks to reduce the tax base of corporate income tax arising from equity financing. Consequently, this paper will briefly discuss the Allowance for Corporate Equity, give an overview of the Proposal for a Council Directive on laying down rules on a debt-equity bias reduction allowance and on limiting the deductibility of interest for corporate income tax purposes and assess the European Commission proposal. Povzetek. Obstajata dva načina financiranja podjetij, in sicer lastniško in dolžniško financiranje. Ta dva načina financiranja podjetij sta pomembna za davčno zakonodajo, saj plačilo obresti, ki izhajajo iz posojilnega financiranja, zmanjšuje davčno osnovo za dohodnino, plačilo dividend, izplačanih zaradi lastništva podjetja, pa ne zmanjšuje davčne obveznosti podjetja. Zato je bil poskus doseganja nevtralnosti pri financiranju podjetij zahtevna naloga. Eden od teh načinov je olajšava za lastniški kapital podjetij. Evropska komisija je maja 2022 sprejela predlog direktive Sveta o določitvi pravil o olajšavi za zmanjšanje naklonjenosti zadolževanju v razmerju do lastniškega kapitala in o omejitvi odbitka obresti za namene davka od dohodkov pravnih oseb, t. i. predlog DEBRA, katerega namen je zmanjšati davčno osnovo davka od dohodkov pravnih oseb, ki izhaja iz lastniškega financiranja. Zato bo v tem prispevku na kratko obravnavana olajšava za lastniški kapital podjetij, podan pregled predloga direktive Sveta o določitvi pravil o olajšavi za zmanjšanje naklonjenosti zadolževanju v razmerju do lastniškega kapitala in o omejitvi odbitka obresti za namene davka od dohodkov pravnih oseb in ocenjen predlog Evropske komisije.